It is concluded that the design specifications vary greatly without any consensus on the main sizes, dimensions or details. Built Environ. Overall, it is observed that the allowed dimensions of building volumes and their individual elements vary greatly between the countries. Suitability: Used for construction of ordinary buildings in hilly areas where a good variety of stones are cheaply available. The strategy of SMARTnet envisions a joint approach of global collaboration, to cope with the massive number of material variables, as well as to generate cross-checked data that can be used for calculations and computer modeling of non-engineered techniques. DTU NF P06-013 – Earthquake Resistant Construction Rules Applicable to Buildings, called PS 92 (in French). Lima: Ministry of Housing. Tehran: Building and Housing Research Center. 45–55. However, the craft that goes into it is crucial. C193-79 (1979). Nearly 325 seismic and masonry codes of countries worldwide have been analyzed, divided over 5 continents and in different time frames going back as far as the nineteenth century. In 1935 two seismic zones were introduced (RDL-22/03/n.640, 1935). Ordinance on Temporary Technical Regulations for Construction in Seismic Regions (in Serbo-Croatian). Dhaka: Housing and Building Research Institute. The minimum thickness of random rubble work that can be constructed with great care is 225 mm (9″) and with ease 300 mm (1 ft). Amendments nos 1. This type of construction is the cheapest, but it requires more skill in construction. Maximum width of openings is 2.5 m, minimum lengths for corner masonry is 1.8 and 1.55 m for piers, whereas the length of openings versus length of a wall may not exceed 25%. Answer to your 2nd question: When we talk about the design of retaining wall then it should be accurately done as per the local water agency and local municipality. To enhance clarity and avoid further confusion, the proposed solution is to develop a stand-alone code that is specifically intended for NRM rubble stone buildings in cement mortar. (2019a). The hollow spaces left around and stones should tightly pack with smaller stone pieces. Improving Earthquake Resistance of Low Strength Masonry Buildings. Seismic Technical Specification for Building Construction in Town and Village (in Chinese). Main mountain ranges of the Caucasus region and the Middle East (original source: Natural Earth raster + vector map). Experimental study of the in-plane behavior of confined stone masonry walls. After the devastating 2005 Kashmir earthquake, the building code was upgraded with a focus on seismic design of buildings, whilst dividing the whole country into 5 seismic zones (BCP-SP-07, 2007). Satisfactory bond can be obtained in this type of stone masonry. Effectively this has not been undertaken to date, and therefore the authors of this paper have started a research group with the aim of upgrading the knowledge and improving the seismic resilience of rubble stone masonry, to be published in a series of papers that already includes a literature review of practical manuals, and a detailed cost analysis (Schildkamp and Araki, 2019a, b). The latter masonry type is called “muratura a pietrame listata” or simply “muratura listata,” which is still included in today’s code. BCP-86 (1986). Kathmandu: Department of Urban Development and Building Construction. On Earthquake Resistant Regulation of Construction Works (in Greek). IS 1893 (part 1)-2002 (2002). Part 1 General Provisions and Buildings (Sixth Revision). PGS-1 (1968). In all cases, URM must be strengthened with a horizontal tie-beam at floor and roof level, and a floor type that provides adequate diaphragm action. In case of slant joints (as in random rubble masonry), the joint lines should meet at or near the junctions. ABC-2012 (2012). NBC 105:2019 (2019). Due to decades of conflict and a lack of governmental regulatory systems, Afghanistan did not have a unified building code until 2012 and engineers freely used locally issued guidelines and (former) Soviet and Indian codes, such as 1982-102-1 (1982) and 1983-7-II (1983), which were partial translations of the Russian code SNiP II-A.12-69∗ (1977) and the Indian code of practice IS:4326-1976 (1977). Almost the whole country, including several large mountain ranges, such as the Alborz, Zagros, Makran, and Köpet Dag Mountains, falls within an active seismic zone numbered 1–4 on the Iranian seismic hazard map (Moinfar et al., 2012). This envisions a structured research approach with focus on vernacular and traditional construction techniques, called “Non-Engineered 2.0,” for which a research initiative is started under the name “SMARTnet,” meaning “Seismic Methodologies for Applied Research and Testing of non-engineered techniques.” The findings of this paper will serve as the starting point for the upcoming follow-up paper, which will complement the seismic demand with hand-made base shear calculations for countries that still allow the technique. Rules for Construction, Calculation and Execution of Masonry Structures (in Romanian). 6:590520. doi: 10.3389/fbuil.2020.590520. PBO-64 (1964). Construction in Seismic Areas (in Azerbaijani). Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Since the very first 1962 edition it is stated that “in highly seismic areas, construction of a type which entails heavy debris and consequent loss of life and property, such as masonry—particularly mud masonry and rubble masonry, is best avoided.” For construction features and material specifications the seismic code refers from its earliest editions to IS:4326-1967 (1968) “Earthquake-Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings,” IS:1905-1961 (1962) “Masonry Walls” and to IS:1597(part 1)-1967 (1967) “Construction of Rubble Stone Masonry.” After the 1988 Bihar earthquake in Nepal near the Indian border, more attention was needed for low-strength brickwork and stone masonry. It is mostly used for the construction of walls with a low height. Regulations on Construction in Seismic Areas (in Russian). State Journal n.98 of 30 April, 1947, Sofia. Since 1994 stone masonry is no longer clearly specified in the seismic code (NCSE-94, 1995) nor the masonry code (NBE-FL-90, 1991), other than one specific restriction for dry-stacked stone masonry. i) Random rubble • Un-coursed After the 1954 Chlef earthquake, a provisional set of recommendations was published (AS55, 1955) which described the use of Confined Masonry for seismic areas, but without materialization of the masonry units. D. Kouinoglou (Greece), Assoc. Round (river) boulders are not recommended for stone masonry buildings in earthquake-prone areas. Provided that stone, or even rubble stone is allowed as “other material,” then 2-story buildings with spacing of 7.5m between cross-walls of 38 cm thickness are allowed in seismic zone VIII, without further calculations and regardless of the masonry type. 1) Rubble masonry: In this category, the stones used are either undressed or roughly dressed having wider joints. (2019b). Athens: Organisation for Earthquake Resistant Planning and Protection. SP 52.13330.2016 (2017). The Indian seismic code IS:1893 (part 1)-2016 (2016) also leaves room for interpretation as stone masonry “should preferably be avoided” in seismic zone IV, and construction of schools “should not be permitted.” The overall point is: Any possible misinterpretation can easily be avoided by adding a clear line in the codes, which specifically states whether rubble stone masonry is allowed or not; and to what type of buildings and structures it applies. Seismic Design Code, Part 1 – Design Provisions for Buildings (in Romanian). GOST 4001-66 (1967). The second edition ZMMYT-44 (1944) allowed two-story uncut rubble stone buildings with a maximum length of 12m and wall thickness at ground floor of 60 cm and first floor of 35cm, along with nominal required reinforcements. Since medieval times 50 cm thick loadbearing walls were built of a stone cladding type called “Midis,” with a double layer of roughly cut stones, filled with mortar and pumice in the middle. For instance, Xizang Province (Tibet) borders the Himalayan Range, and Xinjiang Province is crossed by the Altay, Tian Shan, Kunlun Shan and Karakoram Mountains. Interestingly, in the 1968 version ABYYHY-68 (1968) the building height was increased to 3 stories, but then again 7 years later this was drastically reduced to just one floor (ABYYHY-75, 1975). The stones are all squared and properly dressed. J. Struct. DBYBHY (2007). Rubble masonry is further sub-divided into the following three types: Rubble masonry is the type of stone masonry in which either undressed or hammer dressed stones are used is called random rubble masonry. The masonry chapter defines that stone masonry units must conform to ASTM C568/C568M (2015) for limestone, ASTM C615/C615M (2018) for granite and ASTM C616/C616M (2015) for sandstone units. Beijing: Standardization Administration of China, jointly with General Administration of Quality Supervision. But in fact, this is no longer clearly described or specifically mentioned. Random size and shape rocks A stone built wall pattern. The Caucasus includes Russia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. New Text of Technical Building Standards with Special Requirements for Earthquake-Affected Locations (in Italian). Syrian Arab Code for the Design and Implementation of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Fourth Edition – Annex 2 Earthquake Design of Buildings, Second Edition (in Arabic). In that respect, the recommendations must be subject to continuous review and change as more data become available” (Arya, 1977). In this masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all the joints are regular, thin and have uniform thickness. Unreinforced masonry (or in this case URM but nominally reinforced) with cement mortar and a wooden roof is described in the Iranian masonry code NBRI-8 (2013). It is important to note that the buildings by SSF in Nepal have only incorporated horizontal bands in the walls, and that any vertical steel reinforcements are excluded. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The strength of the mortar used for joining of rubble stone is in between 5 to 7.5 MPa only. The horizontal rows of bricks can be replaced with continuous reinforced or unreinforced concrete bands. RPA-81 (1981). Figure 2. Mandatory Rules of Thumb Load Bearing Masonry, V2.RV7, reprint. “Evaluation and strengthening of public buildings after the Kamashi (Uzbekistan) earthquakes in 2000 and 2001,” in Proceedings of the 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, (Vancouver, BC: 13 WCEE Secretariat). China has developed a National Atlas of building designs, including a chapter with plans, sections and details of stone houses, that follow all the above-mentioned seismic design rules, material specifications and construction guidelines (08SG618-4, 2008). In Saudi Arabia stone was used a lot in the past, such as in the southern provinces of Saheer and Al Bahah, but these days it is basically no longer practiced. The first revisions in 20 years, although completed just before the devastating Gorkha earthquakes in 2015, were made available to the public 4 years later; in June 2019. The maximum width of openings is 2.0 m, corner masonry has a minimum length of 2.5 m and piers minimum 2.2 m. Horizontal concrete bands at floor level are mandatory, but as floors must act as rigid diaphragms, wooden floors are not allowed. Interestingly, rubble stone masonry of minimum 400mm thickness with the inclusion of through-stones is specifically mentioned in chapter 2109.10 of UBC-97. All these recommendations are meant for residential buildings, as NBC 202 specifies that its rules do not apply for important buildings such as schools. Floors must be made of wooden members, the roof structure must be properly anchored to the walls and made as stiff as possible. Design and Construction with Reinforced Earth, Annex – Decree n.121-2017-VIVIENDA from the Ministry of Housing, Construction and Sanitation (in Spanish). In this code, flat rubble stone houses with wooden roofs are allowed up to one story in zone 7, with a maximum height of 3.6 m from ground level to halfway the gable. Standard Specification for Quartz-Based Dimension Stone. SNiP I-A.1 (1955). Decreto 3209 – Earthquake Resistant Standard PDS-1 (1974), Part A Indicative Standards (in Spanish). O. Türkcan (Turkey), Prof. D. Benouar and Prof. A. Bourzam (Northern Africa, Algeria), Dr. Y. Mahgoub and Dr. S. Raheem (Egypt), Prof. N. Armouti (Jordan and Syria), Dr. M. Al-Shuwaili (Iraq), Dr. O. Kegyes-Brassai (Romania), MEng. NBC 109:1994 (2007). For type III structural loadbearing masonry with horizontal (steel net) reinforcements, no difference is made between bricks, dimensioned stones or rubble stones, for as long as a minimum wall strength requirement (120 kPa) is met. The stones used in this type of masonry Baku: Committee for Architecture and Urban Planning of the Republic of Azerbaijan. The review is not limited to the Himalayan region, but extended worldwide and includes all countries where stone masonry is still practiced today (whether it is allowed or not by their codes), as well as countries that had a rich culture of stone masonry in the past and which potentially could (or should) reintroduce the technique. In this form the stones used in the work are hammer or chisel-dressed. IS:1597 (part 1)-1967 (1967). RSCCS (1958). Rabat: Bulletin de l’Institut Scientifique, section Sciences de la Terre, n.34. Rabat: Ministry of Public Works. Personal communication. Mashal, M., and Sarwary, I. It is the cheapest and roughest type of masonry. Ozcebe, G., Ramirex, J., Wasti, T., and Yakut, A. The stones are put in irregular way and bonded with The following paragraphs explain how the former Soviet countries deal with stone masonry today, except for Kazakhstan where this technique traditionally was not used. Bucharest: Central Research Institute for Design and Management in Construction.
The highest Building Category E requires maximum provisions for strengthening, whereas category A requires the least. When following their annex to Eurocode 8 (nHRN EN 1998-1:2011/NA, 2011) for URM with required nominal reinforcements, then “simple masonry buildings” in importance class II (houses) are allowed without mandatory verification, as follows: Maximum height depending on the acceleration at site (2 stories for ag = 0.30g or 5 stories for ag ≤ 0.20g, both on rock soil) and a minimum given percentual area of shear walls. Bucharest: State Committee for Construction. Seismic Risk Reduction in Developing Countries
Dry rubble masonry use in the construction of retaining walls pitching earthen dams and canal slopes in the form of random rubble masonry without any mortar. Decreto n.41658 - Safety Regulation of Constructions Against Earthquakes (in Portuguese). Brussels: European Committee for Standardization. New Delhi: Indian Standards Institution. These allowed buildings up to 8 m height in seismic Intensity zone 8, for masonry category 3 which includes irregular shaped stones (explained in more detail in the “Russian” section). IS:1597(part 2)-1992 (2016). Boulder, CO: The Masonry Society. Prof. M. Novak and Prof. Hadzima-Nyarko (former Yugoslavian codes, Croatia), Dr. E. Mustafaraj and Prof. H. Bilgin (Albania), MArch. Bangladesh, although bordering the Northeastern Indian states where stone masonry is broadly practiced, does not have a culture of stone masonry and the technique is not mentioned in their building code (BNBC-2017, 2017). Decreto 1723 – Reinforced Brick Masonry (in Spanish). It is also noted that several countries where stone masonry is still broadly practiced, are currently not allowing the technique (or have no codes in place), such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bhutan, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, Yemen and Albania. Thinley, K., Hao, H., and Tashi, C. (2017). This includes even the highest seismic zone with a mapped peak ground acceleration (PGA) of around 0.4g, as outlined on the new seismic hazard map in the draft version of the updated (and about to be published) seismic code NBC NBC 105:2019 (2019). Earthquake Resistant Construction. RS-89/2019 (2019). Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. It described that buildings with “strong masonry walls” and higher than 3 floors in the most severe zone A (and 4 floors in zone B), must be reinforced with concrete tie-beams, in which case seismic verification is not necessary. Construction in Seismic Areas. ZMMYT-44 (1944). Kabul: Government of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Uncoursed rubble masonry a) Uncoursed random rubble masonry: The weak corners and edges are removed with mason’s hammer. Random Rubble Masonry . Armenia also has a rich historic culture of stone masonry, which is still practiced today. The maximum number of stories ranges from just one in Iran and China to five in Croatia, which is a remarkable difference as each corresponding maximum acceleration at site is 0.20g. The offsets to be provided in rubble masonry construction have to be 75 mm (3 inches) on either side. Minimum wall thickness is 400 mm, maximum cross-spacing of walls 11 m, and minimum lengths of corner masonry and piers are 1 m. The total length of openings should not exceed 25% in cross-walls with a maximum length of 1.5 m per opening, and 50% in longitudinal walls with a maximum of 1.8 m. Reinforced concrete tie-beams must be included on top of the foundation and at roof level, as well as steel bar stitches in corners and junctions at 500–700 mm intervals. This section describes the historic background and analyzes the current possibilities and limitations of rubble stone masonry, following the criteria as described in this chapter. Such interchanging of incompatible information may also be the case in the seismic code of Georgia (PN 01.01-09, 2012), where the very generous design specifications are presumably meant for brick masonry, rather than for rubble stone buildings. IS:4326-1967 (1968). Prof. T. Miller (US-based codes), Y. Vorfolomeyeva (all Russian-based codes), Dr. J. Nizomov (Tajikistan), Assoc. Kyrgyzstan had developed its first national seismic code in 1994 based on the Russian code and revised it twice. Here the main construction practices for low-rise and low-cost housing consist of natural materials such as bamboo and earth (adobe, rammed earth, wattle-and-daub), or Confined Masonry with bricks or concrete blocks. Boletín Oficial del Estado n.33, February 8 of 1995, Madrid. Random rubble masonry can sustain a high amount of pressure exerted by water. Kathmandu: Department of Urban Development and Building Construction. Here the further two sub types are,Coursed random rubble and Uncoursed random rubble. Eurocode 8 – Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance - Part 1: General Rules, Seismic Actions and Rules for Buildings – National Annex (in Croatian). Received: 01 August 2020; Accepted: 22 September 2020;Published: 20 October 2020. Guideline of Avoiding the Earthquake Danger for Primary and Middle Schools (in Chinese). This raises questions about the completeness and correctness, as well as the reliability and actual value of the knowledge in this field. Thickness of mortar is uniform through out. UNECE (2011). The maximum number of stories for muratura listata was reduced with one floor for each seismic category in 1962 (L-25/11/n.1684, 1962) and a continuous reinforced concrete band was added at all floor levels. Beijing: State Construction Committee. Moinfar, A., Naderzadeh, A., and Nabavi, M. (2012). Beijing: Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China. 1982-102-1 (1982). Un-coursed Random Rubble Masonry. RDL n.2105 (1937). Algiers: Ministry of Housing and Reconstruction. Kathmandu: Department of Urban Development and Building Construction. SI-431-1995 (2013). Vertical joints are not plumbed, joints are filled and flushed. Algerian Earthquake Resistant Regulations RPA 99 – Version 2003 (in French). Kabul: Urban and Construction Projects Institute. But on a positive note, school buildings in rubble stone masonry are currently not completely ruled out in Nepal. Kathmandu: Department of Urban Development and Building Construction. Beijing: Ministry of Construction of the People’s Republic of China. We wish to acknowledge everyone who has assisted with our search for the national seismic, masonry and building codes, and in particular C. Bodnar-Anderson, librarian of the NISEE-PEER Library. It is an ordinary masonry and is recommended for constructing walls of height not more than 6m. Regulations for Design of Buildings and Engineering Structures in the Seismic Regions of the People’s Republic of Bulgaria (in Bulgarian). The review aims to trace when and where certain rules came into existence, how they have changed over time, and if there are similarities between codes and countries. Uncoursed Random Rubble Masonry; Square Rubble Masonry (b) Coursed Square Rubble Masonry (c) Uncoursed Square Rubble Masonry: Polygonal Rubble Masonry; Flint Rubble Masonry; Dry Rubble Masonry; 02. Random Rubble Masonry in Cement mortar 1:5 in foundation (1Cu) Generally, to construct a rubble foundation, the materials required are rubble, cement, sand, and water. The most common damage is due to cracks in the walls. It has varying appearance. Materials and Products from Natural Stone (in Russian). Seismic Design of Buildings in Nepal (draft version). A final table summarizes all design requirements as dictated by the national codes in which stone masonry is currently still allowed. Int. Building Code of Pakistan (Seismic Provisions – 2007). Seismic Design Codes (in Kyrgyz and Russian). It is further observed that types of stone masonry and stone properties are seldom clearly described in the codes. This, however, does not serve the current engineering practices and construction needs in these countries. Kathmandu: Department of Urban Development and Building Construction. Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings – Code of Practice (Second Revision). This was revised in 1909 to single-story buildings with shaped or “properly broken” rubble stones and river boulders, with a maximum wall spacing of 5m, and reinforced either with concrete bands or with closely spaced horizontal courses of bricks at height intervals of 60cm (RD-18/04/n.193, 1909). Get Ready for Power Bowls, Ancient Grains and More. It further categorizes two types of rubble stone; flat rubble stone, which is minimum 150 mm thick and has two sides that are roughly parallel, and irregular rubble stone. For natural stone units, only “stones or blocks made of shell rock, limestones or tuffs” are allowed, but without any description of the shape or dimensions. MKS CT 22-07-2007 (2007). Built Environ. Ankara: Ministry of Public Works and Settlement. The designs were developed by SSF following general rules of thumb, as found in several practical field manuals that address “non-engineered seismic design.” The term “non-engineered” for buildings refers to “those which are spontaneously and informally constructed in various countries in the traditional manner, without any or little intervention by qualified architects and engineers in their design” (Arya, 2000). However, 8 countries need to be excluded from further review for various reasons. Official Gazette of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia n.39 of 30 September 1964, Belgrade. suppose you have to construct a wall of length=4m,breadth=1m,&height=2m. The first Bulgarian seismic code Decree n.15 (1947) allowed stone masonry for two-story buildings in the highest seismic zone IX, with a minimum wall thickness of 53 cm and maximum wall-spacing of 12 m, but without specification for the type of stones. Prof. M. Raghunandan (India), Prof. S. Lodi, Assist. Applied Technology Council (2017). Are added for rubble stone masonry involve arranging stones of irregular size are at... Dabizheva, i., Gacesa-Moric, V., Yepes-Estrada, C., Dabbeek, J. random rubble masonry Wasti T.... Is only required in India and Nepal 1991, Madrid n.26454 of 06/03/2007 ( in Russian ) and wastage material. Labor and wastage of material while dressing eur 29601 EN – the of... Structure must be strengthened with 2 horizontal rows of bricks in Georgia stiffening of the roof structure be! 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